Educational Research - Page 2 of 4

Unit 2

Types of Research

Research by Purpose

1. Basic Research

Basic research, also called pure research, fundamental research, or basic science, focuses on expanding knowledge and improving scientific theories. It’s driven by curiosity rather than an immediate practical application. The goal is to understand concepts better, but it doesn’t necessarily solve everyday problems or have commercial value.

Basic research is used to:

Understand a topic or phenomenon.
Build a complete body of knowledge on a subject.
Improve existing scientific theories.
Make predictions about natural or other phenomena.

It can be qualitative (involving words and meanings) or quantitative (involving numbers and measurements), or both. Even though it may not solve immediate problems, it helps lay the foundation for future applications in various fields.

Example of Basic Research:
In education, basic research is used to understand how students learn. Questions like:

How do children acquire language?
How does memory work in students?
How do different teaching methods affect concentration in class?
help researchers understand learning behaviors, which can later improve educational practices.

2. Applied Research

Applied research takes the theories and knowledge from basic research and uses them to solve real-world problems. It focuses on finding solutions that can be implemented immediately to address specific challenges.

Applied research is used to:

Test existing theories in practical situations.
Discover new facts that help in solving real-world problems.
Provide immediate solutions to everyday issues.

Example of Applied Research:
A medical researcher might study a new treatment for diabetes based on findings from basic research about how insulin works. This research aims to directly improve patient care by applying what was learned in the lab to real-world medical treatments.

3. Action Research

Action research focuses on solving immediate problems with quick, practical solutions. It is often used in specific settings where results are needed right away, such as in schools, businesses, or community settings. The goal is to take action based on the research results.

Action research is used to:

Provide quick, service-oriented solutions.
Respond rapidly to a problem or need.
Be sensitive to the specific time and place where it’s applied.

Example of Action Research:
A teacher who notices students struggling with a particular lesson might try out new teaching strategies and assess their impact right away. This helps the teacher quickly find a method that works for their classroom.

4. Evaluation Research

Evaluation research is used to assess the effectiveness of a program, policy, or project. The goal is to determine whether something is working as intended and how it can be improved. This type of research is common in areas like education, healthcare, and government programs.

There are different types of evaluation:

Concurrent Evaluation: Evaluation happens continuously as the program runs.
Periodic Evaluation: Evaluation happens at specific stages of the program.
Terminal Evaluation: Evaluation happens after the program has ended to assess overall success.

Example of Evaluation Research:
A government agency might conduct evaluation research on a public health campaign to see if it successfully reduced smoking rates. They might evaluate the program at different stages to make adjustments and see if the final goals were met.

5. Research and Development (R&D) Research

Research and Development (R&D) focuses on creating new products or improving existing ones. It involves studying the structure, functions, and performance of a system or product to make it better. R&D is a combination of both basic and applied research, as it starts with understanding fundamental concepts and ends with practical applications.

R&D research is used to:

Study the overall performance of a product or system.
Compare different technologies or approaches.
Work collaboratively across various disciplines.

Example of R&D Research:
A technology company may invest in R&D to create a more energy-efficient smartphone. This involves studying user needs, battery technology, and comparing it with existing products to develop a new, improved device.

Types by Method:

Historical Research Methods

Historical research is the process of gathering and analyzing information about past events to understand their impact on the present and predict possible future trends. It seeks to explain why certain events happened and how they shaped subsequent events or ideas. By looking at patterns from the past, researchers can trace connections between historical events and modern developments, giving insights into the reasons behind present circumstances.

In his book “Historical Research: A Guide” (2002), W.H. McDowell defines historical research as a method that involves the systematic collection and evaluation of data to discover patterns and establish facts from the past. This type of research is crucial for understanding history not just as a sequence of events but as a series of interconnected developments that continue to influence society.

Steps in Historical Research

Step 1: Identify a Research Topic

The first step is to select a topic for your research. A good topic should be specific enough to allow in-depth investigation but broad enough to have sufficient information available. This step sets the direction for your entire research project.

Example: Researching how the 1972 nationalization policy affected private schools and colleges in Pakistan, and its long-term impact on educational quality and access.

Step 2: Conduct a Literature Review

After identifying a topic, it is important to review existing literature to understand what has already been researched and written about it. This will help you see gaps in knowledge, refine your focus, and build a foundation for your work. The literature review mainly involves secondary sources like books, journal articles, and reviews.

Step 3: Refine Your Research Questions

Based on your initial findings from the literature review, you can refine your research topic into more specific questions. This step ensures that your research is focused and manageable.

Step 4: Identify and Locate Primary and Secondary Sources

Once your research question is clear, you will need to find sources that provide information relevant to your topic. Primary sources are firsthand accounts from the time period you’re studying, while secondary sources analyze or interpret primary data.

Primary Sources:

Letters, diaries, and government documents.
Photographs, maps, or newspaper articles from the time.
Artifacts such as tools or clothing.

Secondary Sources:

Books or articles by historians analyzing the event.
Documentaries and scholarly reviews.

Example: Collecting official government notifications about the nationalization policy, newspaper reports from 1972, and academic analyses of the policy’s impact on different regions in Pakistan.

Step 5: Evaluate Sources (Source Criticism)

Once you have collected your primary and secondary sources, it’s critical to evaluate their authenticity and accuracy. This process involves both external and internal criticism.

External Criticism: Determines if the source is genuine. This could involve checking the document’s age, authorship, and condition.

Example:
Verifying whether a letter or diary from the is original and from the time period claimed.

Internal Criticism: Evaluates the content of the source for bias, exaggeration, or inaccuracies. It ensures that the source is reliable and that the author had firsthand knowledge of the events described.

Step 6: Analyze Data

After evaluating your sources, the next step is to analyze the data they contain. This involves examining patterns, comparing evidence, and developing a historical narrative. You will focus on understanding what happened, why it happened, and its broader significance.

Step 7: Create and Test Arguments

Once you have analyzed your data, you can begin to create arguments or hypotheses that explain the events you are studying. These arguments should be based on the evidence you gathered and your analysis of it. In historical research, this involves constructing a narrative that explains how and why certain events unfolded.

Step 8: Present Findings

The final step is to present your research findings. This could be in the form of a written report, an academic paper, or a presentation. You should clearly present your arguments, supporting them with evidence from your primary and secondary sources. The goal is to create a coherent explanation of the historical events you have studied.

Experimental Research:

Experimental research is a method of scientific investigation in which researchers manipulate one or more variables to determine their effect on other variables. It is one of the most reliable methods for establishing cause-and-effect relationships. In experimental research, researchers aim to understand how specific factors influence outcomes by creating controlled conditions and observing the effects of manipulated variables.

In education, for instance, experimental research may involve altering teaching methods to measure their impact on student performance. The primary purpose of this approach is to isolate the cause of observed effects, making it one of the most powerful methods for hypothesis testing.

Key Features of Experimental Research

Manipulation of Variables: The researcher deliberately changes one or more independent variables (cause) to observe the effect on the dependent variables (outcome).
Control: All other variables that could influence the outcome are controlled or kept constant to minimize external influence.
Randomization: Subjects or participants are randomly assigned to different groups, such as the experimental and control groups, to eliminate biases and ensure that groups are comparable.

Types of Variables in Experimental Research

Variables are the elements that researchers manipulate, control, or observe in an experiment. There are several types of variables used in experimental research:

1. Independent Variables (IV)

These are the variables that researchers manipulate or control to observe their effect on dependent variables.
In educational research, an independent variable might be the teaching method used in a classroom (e.g., traditional vs. modern methods).

2. Dependent Variables (DV)

These variables are the outcome or effect that the researcher is trying to measure. The dependent variable depends on the manipulation of the independent variable.
In educational research, a dependent variable could be the student’s test scores after using different teaching methods.

3. Control Variables

These are variables that are kept constant during the experiment to ensure that any observed changes in the dependent variable are solely due to the manipulation of the independent variable.
In an educational setting, factors like classroom environment or student demographics may be controlled to minimize their influence on the results.

4. Extraneous Variables

These are unwanted variables that can influence the results of an experiment but are not of interest to the researcher. If not controlled, they can affect the outcome.
For example, the teacher’s experience in using a particular method could be an extraneous variable in educational research.

5. Confounding Variables

These variables can confuse the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. A confounding variable correlates with both the IV and DV, making it hard to determine the true cause of changes in the DV.
In educational research, student motivation might be a confounding variable if not accounted for.

Experimental and Control Groups

1. Experimental Group

The experimental group is the group of participants who are exposed to the independent variable. This group undergoes the treatment or condition that the researcher is testing.
Example in Education: In an experiment testing a new teaching method, the group of students taught using this new method would be the experimental group.

2. Control Group

The control group is not exposed to the independent variable or treatment. This group serves as a baseline to compare with the experimental group, helping to measure the effect of the manipulation.
Example in Education: Students in a traditional classroom setting (using the usual teaching method) would be in the control group.

Key Differences:

Treatment: The experimental group receives the intervention or manipulation, while the control group does not.
Purpose: The control group helps researchers rule out alternative explanations for changes in the dependent variable, ensuring that any observed effects are due to the independent variable.

Experimental Research Designs

Several types of designs are used in experimental research, each suited to different kinds of questions and research scenarios.

1. Pre-experimental Designs

Overview: In pre-experimental designs, the researcher manipulates the independent variable but does not control for extraneous variables or randomly assign participants to groups.
Types:
- One-shot Case Study: A single group is exposed to the treatment, and its effects are measured. There is no control group, so it’s difficult to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
- One-group Pretest-Posttest: The researcher measures a single group before and after treatment. However, the lack of a control group makes it hard to attribute changes to the treatment alone.
Limitations: These designs are often weak in internal validity because they do not account for all variables that could affect the outcome.

2. True Experimental Designs

Overview: True experiments involve random assignment of participants to experimental and control groups, and researchers control extraneous variables to ensure more reliable cause-and-effect conclusions.
Types:
- Posttest-Only Control Group Design: Participants are randomly assigned to either the experimental or control group. Only the experimental group is exposed to the treatment, and both groups are tested afterward.
- Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design: Both groups are tested before and after the experiment, allowing researchers to measure change over time and compare the two groups.
Advantages: Randomization and control of variables make true experimental designs the gold standard in establishing causality.

3. Quasi-Experimental Designs

Overview: Quasi-experimental designs are similar to true experiments, but they lack random assignment. These designs are often used when randomization is not possible or ethical.
Types:
- Nonequivalent Control Group Design: Participants are not randomly assigned, but a control group is used to compare the outcomes of the experimental group.
- Interrupted Time Series Design: Multiple measurements are taken before and after the treatment to observe changes over time.
Limitations: Without randomization, it’s harder to rule out other factors that may have influenced the results.
Descriptive Research:

Descriptive research is a type of research that aims to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon being studied. Unlike experimental research, which seeks to determine cause-and-effect relationships, descriptive research focuses on “what” is happening rather than “why” it happens. It provides a detailed and accurate account of behaviors, events, conditions, and situations without manipulating variables.

In educational research, for example, descriptive studies could involve documenting the teaching methods used in different schools or understanding the attitudes of students towards a new curriculum. The goal is to gather data that paints a clear picture of the subject under investigation.

Key Features of Descriptive Research

Non-Manipulative: There is no manipulation of variables in descriptive research. The researcher observes and records information without altering the environment.
Data Collection: Data is collected through methods like surveys, observations, case studies, and interviews.
Snapshot of Reality: Descriptive research provides a “snapshot” of the current state of a situation or group at a specific time.
Quantitative or Qualitative: It can use both quantitative data (numbers, statistics) and qualitative data (narratives, interviews).

Types of Descriptive Research

Descriptive research can take various forms depending on the nature of the research question and the methods of data collection. The three major types are:

1. Observational Studies

Overview: In observational studies, the researcher observes subjects without interacting with them. The goal is to collect data about behaviors, events, or conditions as they naturally occur.
Example in Education: A researcher might observe classroom behavior to study how students interact with teachers during different types of lessons.
Types:
- Naturalistic Observation: Observing subjects in their natural environment without interference.
- Laboratory Observation: Observing subjects in a controlled environment, such as a classroom simulation.

2. Surveys and Questionnaires

Overview: Surveys involve asking people questions about their attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, or characteristics. They are commonly used in descriptive research to gather large amounts of data from a population.
Example in Education: A survey might be used to assess student satisfaction with online learning platforms during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Advantages: Surveys can reach a broad audience, allowing researchers to collect large amounts of data quickly.
Disadvantages: The accuracy of data depends on the honesty and clarity of respondents’ answers.

3. Case Studies

Overview: A case study involves an in-depth examination of a single individual, group, institution, or event. It provides detailed insights into complex issues or rare phenomena.
Example in Education: A case study might explore the impact of nationalization on a specific school in Pakistan after the 1972 policy shift, offering detailed insights into changes in teaching quality and resources.
Advantages: Offers a deep understanding of a specific case.
Disadvantages: May not be generalizable to other cases or populations.

Data Collection Methods in Descriptive Research

Descriptive research relies on various methods to collect detailed information, depending on the research question and population.

1. Surveys

Surveys are one of the most commonly used methods in descriptive research. They consist of structured questions that gather data on people’s opinions, behaviors, or characteristics. Surveys can be administered online, in person, over the phone, or by mail.

Example in Education: A national survey of teachers to understand their opinions on the effectiveness of different teaching methods.

2. Observations

Observation involves systematically watching and recording behaviors or events as they happen. In descriptive research, observation is non-intrusive, allowing the researcher to gather data without influencing the situation.

Example in Education: A researcher might observe student participation in different classroom settings (e.g., traditional vs. online classrooms) to describe their engagement levels.

3. Interviews

Interviews allow researchers to gather in-depth information by asking participants questions directly. This method is often used in qualitative descriptive research and can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured.

Example in Education: Interviews with school administrators to understand the challenges faced after the nationalization of educational institutions in Pakistan.

4. Document Analysis

Document analysis involves reviewing existing records or documents, such as government reports, school performance records, or curricula. Researchers use this method to describe existing phenomena based on previously gathered data.

Example in Education: Analyzing government reports on school performance pre- and post-nationalization in Pakistan.

Applications of Descriptive Research in Education

Descriptive research is widely used in the field of education to understand various aspects of teaching and learning. Some examples include:

Describing Educational Policies: Researchers might describe the impact of policies like the nationalization of educational institutions in Pakistan. They could document changes in school resources, teaching quality, and student performance.
Assessing Attitudes and Opinions: Surveys can be used to assess student and teacher attitudes toward changes in the curriculum or new technologies introduced in schools.
Understanding Student Behavior: Through observation, researchers can describe how different classroom environments (e.g., online vs. traditional) influence student behavior, attention, and participation.

Causal-Comparative Research: Definition and Overview

Causal-comparative research, also known as ex post facto research, is a research method used to identify cause-and-effect relationships between variables without manipulating them. Instead of conducting experiments, researchers observe existing conditions or differences between groups and try to determine the causes of these differences by analyzing data retrospectively.

In causal-comparative research, researchers compare two or more groups based on a specific independent variable that has already occurred, trying to understand its effects on a dependent variable. This type of research is especially useful when experimental manipulation is not possible or ethical.

Key Features of Causal-Comparative Research

Retrospective Nature: Researchers look at past events or conditions to determine causes rather than manipulating variables.
Pre-existing Groups: The groups being studied already exist, such as students from different schools or individuals with different lifestyles.
No Variable Manipulation: The independent variable is not manipulated by the researcher but is instead observed as it naturally occurs.
Comparative Analysis: Researchers compare different groups to identify differences in outcomes.

Steps in Conducting Causal-Comparative Research

Identify the Research Problem: The researcher identifies an issue or question that involves understanding the effects of an independent variable on a dependent variable.

Example: Investigating whether students from private schools in Pakistan perform better academically than students from public schools, focusing on the impact of school type (private vs. public) on academic achievement.

Form Hypotheses: Based on the problem, the researcher formulates hypotheses that predict possible relationships between the variables.

Example: Students in private schools may have higher academic performance due to better resources and teaching methods compared to students in public schools.

Select Participants/Groups: Pre-existing groups are selected based on differences in the independent variable (e.g., school type).

Example: Group A consists of students from private schools, while Group B consists of students from public schools.

Collect Data: Data is collected on the dependent variable, such as academic performance measured by grades, test scores, or other educational outcomes.

Example: The researcher gathers standardized test scores from students in both public and private schools.

Analyze Data: Researchers use statistical methods to analyze the differences between groups and determine whether the independent variable (school type) has a significant effect on the dependent variable (academic performance).
Draw Conclusions: Based on the analysis, conclusions are drawn about the possible causes of the observed differences.

Example: If students from private schools show significantly higher academic performance, it may suggest that factors associated with private schooling contribute to these outcomes.

Types of Variables in Causal-Comparative Research

Independent Variable: This is the variable that is not manipulated but occurs naturally and is used to classify the groups being compared. The researcher seeks to determine its effect on the dependent variable.

Example: In the school performance study, the independent variable would be the type of school (public or private).

Dependent Variable: This is the outcome or effect that is measured and compared between the groups. The dependent variable depends on the independent variable.

Example: Academic performance (measured by test scores or grades) is the dependent variable in the school comparison.

Control Variables: These are other variables that might influence the dependent variable. Researchers often try to control or account for these to ensure they don’t affect the results.

Example: Socioeconomic status or prior academic achievement could be control variables, as they might also influence students’ academic performance.

Experimental Group vs. Control Group in Causal-Comparative Research

Experimental Group: In causal-comparative research, this group is defined by the independent variable being studied. It is not “experimental” in the traditional sense, but rather the group that exhibits the characteristic or condition of interest.

Example: Students from private schools would be the experimental group in a study comparing academic performance between private and public school students.

Control Group: The control group is the group that does not exhibit the characteristic or condition of interest. It serves as a comparison for the experimental group.

Example: Students from public schools would serve as the control group.

Unlike true experiments, these groups are not created or manipulated by the researcher. They already exist, and the researcher merely compares their outcomes.

Causal-Comparative Research Designs

Prospective Design: In this design, the researcher selects participants and then observes their future outcomes based on their classification into groups.

Example: Selecting students from private and public schools and observing their academic performance over a semester.

Retrospective Design: This design involves looking back at data that has already been collected to compare groups based on past experiences or conditions.

Example: Analyzing past academic records of students from public and private schools to study differences in performance.

Advantages of Causal-Comparative Research

Useful When Experiments Are Not Possible: Causal-comparative research is ideal when it is not possible or ethical to manipulate variables directly. For example, it wouldn’t be ethical to randomly assign students to public or private schools for the sake of research.
Helps Identify Possible Causes: Although causal-comparative research cannot prove causality, it can suggest possible causes based on observed relationships.
Comparing Pre-existing Groups: This research method is effective for comparing naturally occurring groups, which is common in educational and social research.

Limitations of Causal-Comparative Research

Cannot Prove Causality: Because the independent variable is not manipulated, researchers cannot definitively establish cause-and-effect relationships. They can only suggest possible causes based on observed correlations.
Confounding Variables: Other variables that the researcher cannot control may influence the dependent variable, leading to potentially biased results.
Difficulty in Group Matching: It may be challenging to find comparable groups where all confounding variables are controlled, especially in naturally occurring settings like schools.

Applications of Causal-Comparative Research in Education

Causal-comparative research is frequently used in educational research to study the effects of naturally occurring variables. Here are some examples:

School Type and Academic Performance: Researchers may compare the academic performance of students from public and private schools to identify the possible effects of school type on educational outcomes.
Teaching Methods and Student Learning: Studies might examine the impact of different teaching methods (e.g., traditional lecture vs. group work) on student learning outcomes.
Impact of Family Background on Education: Researchers may explore the influence of socioeconomic status or parental education on students’ academic achievement.

Types by Approach

9. Quantitative Approach

Emphasis: The quantitative approach focuses on objective measurements and numerical analysis. This method is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or phenomena and aims for generalizable findings.

Main Types:

Descriptive Research: This involves observing and describing the behavior of a subject without influencing it in any way. For example, a survey of students’ grades across public and private schools in Pakistan to identify patterns in academic performance.
- Correlational Research: This type examines relationships between variables without implying cause and effect. For example, studying the relationship between student attendance and academic achievement.
- Causal-Comparative/Quasi-Experimental Research: As previously discussed, this method compares two or more groups based on pre-existing differences to investigate potential cause-and-effect relationships.
- Experimental Research: In this method, variables are manipulated to establish causal relationships between them, such as testing different teaching strategies in different classrooms to see their effects on student outcomes.

10. Qualitative Approach

Involves: The qualitative approach focuses on understanding concepts, thoughts, or experiences through the collection and analysis of non-numerical data. It’s often used when researchers want to delve deeper into the human experience and gain a rich, in-depth understanding of the phenomenon under study.

Types:

Phenomenological Research: This explores lived experiences to understand the essence of a phenomenon. For example, exploring teachers’ experiences in Pakistan after the nationalization of schools in 1972.
- Ethnographic Research: Involves in-depth study of people and their culture in their natural environment. For instance, studying the culture of learning and teaching in rural Pakistani schools.
- Grounded Theory: This method develops a theory grounded in data systematically gathered and analyzed. It could be used to develop a theory on student motivation in public vs. private schools in Pakistan.
- Historical Research: As already discussed above, this focuses on studying past events to understand their effects on the present, such as the impact of Pakistan’s 1972 educational policies.
- Case Study: Involves an in-depth study of a single case or group. For example, studying the challenges faced by a single public school in a rural area of Pakistan.
- Action Research: This research aims at solving an immediate problem while generating knowledge. Teachers or administrators may conduct action research to improve classroom practices.

Generates: Qualitative research generates rich, textual data that provides a deep understanding of the research problem, often leading to the development of themes or theories.

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