The range is calculated by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score in a distribution, giving a simple measure of spread.
Pilot testing means administering an instrument on a small scale before the main study to find weaknesses, unclear items, and problems, so that it can be improved.
An anecdotal record is a factual, objective written account of a significant incident observed in a student's behaviour.
Unstructured (extended-response) essays give students greater freedom in content and organization, which makes scoring less objective and less reliable.
Essay tests let students organize, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information in their own words, making them suitable for complex learning outcomes.
Formative evaluation takes place during instruction and provides feedback that teachers and students can use to improve teaching and learning.
Diagnostic evaluation is used before or during instruction to identify learners' strengths, weaknesses, difficulties, and prior knowledge.
Summative evaluation is conducted at the end of a course or instructional period to determine how far learning objectives have been achieved, and it is often used for grading and certification.
A distractor is an incorrect option designed to be a plausible alternative that attracts students who hold misconceptions or have not mastered the content.
The stem is the question or incomplete statement in a multiple-choice item that presents the problem to which the examinee responds.
Rousseau emphasized natural development, individual freedom, learner-centered education, and teaching according to the child's developmental needs.
Eclecticism involves selecting and combining useful ideas or principles from different philosophical systems rather than adhering strictly to one.
Pragmatism emphasizes practical consequences, experience, experimentation, and solving problems through action; ideas are judged by how well they work.
Aristotle is strongly associated with realism because of his emphasis on observation, the empirical world, reason, and the study of nature.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau presented his philosophy of natural education in Emile, published in 1762, which follows a child's development according to nature.
Rationalism gives primary importance to reason and logical thinking as sources of knowledge, holding that certain truths can be reached by thought itself.
Questions about whether something represents objective reality concern the nature of reality and existence, which is the domain of metaphysics.
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge: its nature, sources, justification, and limits.
Progressivism emphasizes learning through experience, problem-solving, learner participation, and education for democratic living.
Perennialism holds that enduring truths and universal ideas remain relevant across time, so it emphasizes the study of great books and classic works that are intellectually and culturally significant.
Dewey held that education is not just preparation for a future stage of life but a continuous process of growth through experience, so learning is part of living itself.
Progressive education, especially in Dewey's philosophy, views the school as a social institution and a miniature democratic society where students learn cooperation, shared responsibility, and democratic participation through experience.
Educational administration coordinates both instructional activities (teaching, curriculum, supervision) and non-instructional activities (finance, staffing, buildings, records) so that educational objectives are achieved effectively.
Democratic administration is based on mutual participation, consultation, cooperation, and sharing of responsibility.
Democratic administration emphasizes participation, consultation, cooperation, and shared decision-making among members of an organization.