Author name: Umar

During the sensorimotor stage, infants lack object permanence, believing an object ceases to exist when it is no longer visible.

Cognitive development specifically refers to the growth and maturation of mental processes, including thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, and memory.

Development signifies qualitative changes, involving progressive transformations in an individual's form, structure, and overall shape over time.

Growth refers to quantitative changes in an individual, encompassing increases in physical dimensions like size, height, and weight.

William Wundt and William James, pioneers of modern psychology, emphasized consciousness as central to human experience. Freud focused on the unconscious, and Watson on observable behavior, not primarily consciousness in this manner.

The term "psychology" originates from the ancient Greek words "psyche" (soul, mind) and "logia" (study of). Therefore, it is derived from Greek, not Latin, English, or Italian.

Historically, "psychology" comes from Greek "psyche" (soul/mind) and "logos" (study). While modern psychology studies mind and behavior, its etymological root refers to the study of the soul.

All aspects of a child's growth—physical, mental, and moral—are crucial for holistic development. Focusing on only one type of growth would neglect other essential areas, leading to incomplete development.

Mentally retarded children typically have an IQ score below 70, which falls into the "Below 90" category. Scores of 90-110 are average, and higher ranges indicate above-average intelligence.

An average child's IQ typically falls within the 90-110 range, representing normal cognitive ability. Scores below 90 or above 110 indicate below-average or above-average intelligence, respectively, not the average range.

Gordon Allport is a prominent figure in personality psychology, known for his trait theory and discriminating various personality characteristics. Maslow and Roger are humanistic psychologists, not primarily focused on the detailed classification of personality traits.

According to Carl Rogers' client-centered approach, the client is the most important element in problem-solving, possessing the inherent capacity for self-understanding and growth. The counsellor's role is facilitative, not directive, making the client central.

Carl Rogers developed client-centered therapy, emphasizing the client's capacity for self-direction and growth. Ausubel and Bruner are cognitive theorists, and Gordon is known for trait theory, not this specific therapeutic approach.

The humanistic approach posits that human nature is inherently good, creative, and capable of healthy growth and self-actualization. Therefore, all the listed attributes—good, creative, and capable of healthy growth—are central to this perspective.

Abraham Maslow is recognized as a founder of the Humanistic Approach, emphasizing self-actualization and human potential. Ausubel and Bruner are cognitive theorists, and Skinner is a behaviorist, making Maslow the correct figure for humanism.

J. S. Bruner is known for advocating meaningful learning through the structure of content and discovery. David Ausubel focused on reception learning, while Pavlov and Skinner are behaviorists, not associated with this constructivist approach to learning.

David Ausubel proposed the concept of meaningful learning through perception, where new information is linked to existing cognitive structures. Bruner focused on discovery learning, while Pavlov and Skinner are associated with behavioral conditioning, not this cognitive theory.

Positive reinforcement involves adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior, like an advance increment or encouragement. Punishment, however, aims to decrease a behavior by adding an aversive stimulus or removing a desirable one.

Operant conditioning, developed by B.F. Skinner, explains how behaviors are strengthened or weakened by reinforcement or punishment. Classical conditioning involves associating stimuli, not primarily reinforcement of voluntary actions.

Ivan Pavlov is renowned for his pioneering work on classical conditioning, demonstrated through his experiments with dogs. Skinner is associated with operant conditioning, Watson with behaviorism, and Thorndike with the law of effect.

In classical conditioning, a specific stimulus reliably elicits a response, often through association with another stimulus. Operant conditioning focuses on voluntary behaviors and their consequences, not necessarily a preceding stimulus.

Behaviourism emphasizes that behavior is learned through interaction with the environment, rather than being primarily determined by inheritance or internal attitudes. The environment provides stimuli and consequences that shape behavior.

Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge resulting from experience. Education is a process, experiment is a method, and innovation is a new idea, none of which directly define this behavioral change.

Fear, quarreling parents, and restrictions all significantly impact emotional development by creating stress, insecurity, or limiting expression. Therefore, "All above" is the correct and comprehensive answer, as individual options are partial.

Parents, teachers, and peers all play crucial roles in a child's moral development by providing guidance, setting examples, and influencing social norms. Therefore, "All above" is the correct comprehensive answer.