Stratified sampling divides the population into relevant subgroups (strata) and selects participants from each, often proportionally, so that every subgroup is represented.
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In systematic sampling, participants are chosen at regular intervals (such as every tenth student) from an ordered population list, usually after a random starting point.
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Simple random sampling gives every member of the population an equal and independent chance of being selected.
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The range is calculated by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score in a distribution, giving a simple measure of spread.
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Pilot testing means administering an instrument on a small scale before the main study to find weaknesses, unclear items, and problems, so that it can be improved.
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An anecdotal record is a factual, objective written account of a significant incident observed in a student's behaviour.
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Unstructured (extended-response) essays give students greater freedom in content and organization, which makes scoring less objective and less reliable.
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Essay tests let students organize, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information in their own words, making them suitable for complex learning outcomes.
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Formative evaluation takes place during instruction and provides feedback that teachers and students can use to improve teaching and learning.
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Diagnostic evaluation is used before or during instruction to identify learners' strengths, weaknesses, difficulties, and prior knowledge.
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Summative evaluation is conducted at the end of a course or instructional period to determine how far learning objectives have been achieved, and it is often used for grading and certification.
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A distractor is an incorrect option designed to be a plausible alternative that attracts students who hold misconceptions or have not mastered the content.
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The stem is the question or incomplete statement in a multiple-choice item that presents the problem to which the examinee responds.
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Rousseau emphasized natural development, individual freedom, learner-centered education, and teaching according to the child's developmental needs.
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Eclecticism involves selecting and combining useful ideas or principles from different philosophical systems rather than adhering strictly to one.
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Pragmatism emphasizes practical consequences, experience, experimentation, and solving problems through action; ideas are judged by how well they work.
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Aristotle is strongly associated with realism because of his emphasis on observation, the empirical world, reason, and the study of nature.
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Jean-Jacques Rousseau presented his philosophy of natural education in Emile, published in 1762, which follows a child's development according to nature.
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Rationalism gives primary importance to reason and logical thinking as sources of knowledge, holding that certain truths can be reached by thought itself.
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Questions about whether something represents objective reality concern the nature of reality and existence, which is the domain of metaphysics.
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Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge: its nature, sources, justification, and limits.
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Progressivism emphasizes learning through experience, problem-solving, learner participation, and education for democratic living.
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Perennialism holds that enduring truths and universal ideas remain relevant across time, so it emphasizes the study of great books and classic works that are intellectually and culturally significant.
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Dewey held that education is not just preparation for a future stage of life but a continuous process of growth through experience, so learning is part of living itself.
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Progressive education, especially in Dewey's philosophy, views the school as a social institution and a miniature democratic society where students learn cooperation, shared responsibility, and democratic participation through experience.
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